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When I compiled it, the unicode characters were not rendered. Attached is the compiled pdf. The non-ASCII characters are rendered in the main part of the document but not in the reference list.

Could you provide an MWE where é, ü, and ð are rendered, including
the workflow?

Alternatively, is there a url that shows LaTeX macros for all alphabets?

Below is an MWE where the non-ASCII characters are not rendered in
the References. bibtex does not throw an error, and in fact the
bbl file ...

I installed the latest MacTex.pkg on a new MacBook Pro running OS X Yosemite (10.10.4). After a reboot, pdflatex and xelatex work fine on the bash shell (Terminal application) command line.

This evidently is because the following has been added to my $PATH: /Library/TeX/texbin

My question: How is ...

Do you mean that the computer on which you work does not have Times New Roman font? I thought it was a standard font. Do you mean that you cannot compile forxelatex.tex on your computer, it throws an error?

I have not installed any special font on my computer. I simply typed the Greek unicode ...

Here are two examples, with identical text, which compiled on my Mac OS 10.7.5 under TexLive 2014. Both rendered the English and the polytonic Greek. But forlatex.tex, compiled in latex, put the soft breathing over the uppercase Alpha; it stands on top of the letter and looks silly. Whereas ...

I ran the following code first with pdflatex, then with xelatex. In pdflatex, the width option is obeyed for both included pdfs. In xelatex, the width option is obeyed only for hey.pdf, which is a vector image. The image ike-1957-06-16.pdf, which is a scanned newspaper clipping, comes in huge.

All ...

This spins off
http://latex-community.org/forum/viewtopic.php?f=40&t=25485&p=87068#p87068, where Johannes_B patiently helped to create a working example that compiles and displays polytonic Greek.

Is there a standard font that will display English, Western European languages, polytonic Greek, and ...

The following compiled and the Greek was visible:

\documentclass[12pt]{article}
\usepackage{fontspec}
\setmainfont{Times New Roman}
%\setmainfont{Latin Modern Roman}
\begin{document}
This is a test.

Greek:

382
οὔτ'
ἄκριες
ἔσχεθον
ὁρμήν:

\end{document}

With "Latin Modern Roman ...

a1.tex is

\documentclass[a4paper,12pt] {article}
\usepackage{fontspec}
\setromanfont{FreeSerif}
\begin{document}
Greek? \\
Ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος,\\
In [the] beginning was the word,\\
\end{document}

> xelatex a1

At the following line it pauses for about a minute:

kpathsea: Running mktextfm ...

I ran

sudo tlmgr update --self

and now have gnu-freefont installed:

> tlmgr info gnu-freefont
package: gnu-freefont
category: Package
shortdesc: A Unicode font, with rather wide coverage.
longdesc: The package provides a set of outline (i.e. OpenType) fonts covering as much as possible of the ...